The White 'Other': Marginal Europeans in Colonial India

Perhaps wary of these complexities, we find Thomas Daniell, when submitting his application in 1784, describing himself as an engraver, as if to imply that he wasn’t just another artist but someone with a professional skill that was in short supply in India; something that was not wholly true. Although, by this time, Daniell had begun to experiment with printing, he was far from mastering it. His nephew William, described as his ‘assistant’, was then aged just fifteen. But the trick worked, and permission was granted by the end of the year and in April of 1785 they embarked. ​

Tilly Kettle (1735–1786), a pioneering English portrait painter, was the first prominent European artist to work extensively in India. Trained in London under Thomas Hudson and Francesco Zuccarelli, Kettle sought fortune abroad, arriving in India in 1768 amidst the burgeoning British colonial presence. He gained patronage from British officials, merchants, and Indian nobility, capturing their likenesses in grand, meticulously detailed portraits.​

Johann Zoffany (1733–1810), a German-born painter, became one of the most celebrated European artists in India. Trained in Italy and later flourishing in England, Zoffany arrived in India in 1783, drawn by opportunities in the colonial milieu like Kettle. Renowned for his skill in portraiture and theatrical group compositions, he captured the lives of British officials, Indian elites, and their interactions, blending realism with subtle social commentary. ​

Perhaps wary of these complexities, we find Thomas Daniell, when submitting his application in 1784, describing himself as an engraver, as if to imply that he wasn’t just another artist but someone with a professional skill that was in short supply in India; something that was not wholly true. Although, by this time, Daniell had begun to experiment with printing, he was far from mastering it. His nephew William, described as his ‘assistant’, was then aged just fifteen. But the trick worked, and permission was granted by the end of the year and in April of 1785 they embarked. ​

Tilly Kettle (1735–1786), a pioneering English portrait painter, was the first prominent European artist to work extensively in India. Trained in London under Thomas Hudson and Francesco Zuccarelli, Kettle sought fortune abroad, arriving in India in 1768 amidst the burgeoning British colonial presence. He gained patronage from British officials, merchants, and Indian nobility, capturing their likenesses in grand, meticulously detailed portraits.​

Johann Zoffany (1733–1810), a German-born painter, became one of the most celebrated European artists in India. Trained in Italy and later flourishing in England, Zoffany arrived in India in 1783, drawn by opportunities in the colonial milieu like Kettle. Renowned for his skill in portraiture and theatrical group compositions, he captured the lives of British officials, Indian elites, and their interactions, blending realism with subtle social commentary. ​

Perhaps wary of these complexities, we find Thomas Daniell, when submitting his application in 1784, describing himself as an engraver, as if to imply that he wasn’t just another artist but someone with a professional skill that was in short supply in India; something that was not wholly true. Although, by this time, Daniell had begun to experiment with printing, he was far from mastering it. His nephew William, described as his ‘assistant’, was then aged just fifteen. But the trick worked, and permission was granted by the end of the year and in April of 1785 they embarked. ​

Tilly Kettle (1735–1786), a pioneering English portrait painter, was the first prominent European artist to work extensively in India. Trained in London under Thomas Hudson and Francesco Zuccarelli, Kettle sought fortune abroad, arriving in India in 1768 amidst the burgeoning British colonial presence. He gained patronage from British officials, merchants, and Indian nobility, capturing their likenesses in grand, meticulously detailed portraits.​

Johann Zoffany (1733–1810), a German-born painter, became one of the most celebrated European artists in India. Trained in Italy and later flourishing in England, Zoffany arrived in India in 1783, drawn by opportunities in the colonial milieu like Kettle. Renowned for his skill in portraiture and theatrical group compositions, he captured the lives of British officials, Indian elites, and their interactions, blending realism with subtle social commentary. ​

A varied and voluminous set, the series, titled Les Hindous, was published first in Calcutta without much popularity and then reprinted in Paris between 1808 and 1812, containing 288 coloured etchings. Along with the artist’s descriptions in French and English, they present an encyclopaedic vision of the ‘customs, costumes and ceremonies’ of the people of eastern India at the end of eighteenth century. This project was designed in what was described as ‘socially descending sections,’ spanning across caste and community groups and documenting their costumes, rituals, and musical instruments, among other details. ​

Solvyns, along with providing us with visual insights on eighteenth century life in 'black town' Calcutta, also helpfully annotates his etchings and his letterpresses are a wealth of information on his own positionality and opinions. He also gives us a glimpse of the peripheries of European lives in 'white town'. He dedicates multiple plates to the portrayal of servants without the representation of their wealthy European employers. Here we see a glance of a European mansion but the character in focus is the water-carrier or Bhisti, supplying drinking water to the household. ​ For Solvyns, Calcutta was a much more porous city than its urban neighbourhoods' segregation into 'white' and 'black' town would suggest.​

Solvyns here portrays Lal Bazar, looking westward at the crossing of Chitpore Road. Lal Bazar, synonymous with the Calcutta police headquarters, was also famous for its 'punch houses' and places of entertainment, mainly kept by 'Portugese [Eurasians], Italians and other foreigners.' During his years in Calcutta, Solvyns lived in various locations within a short walk of the scene he portrays. The boarding houses were spread across Bowbazar, Lal bazar and Flag street. While writing on these lodging houses or 'punch ghurs', Dr. Sarmistha De in her book Marginal Europeans writes, 'These punch housekeepers virtually controlled the navigation of Calcutta Port using their muscle power.' ​

Also known as touts or crimps, many owners of these lodging houses, were unlicensed British subjects. Even before the ship had docked the punch house owners would gain access to the docks and start 'to sing the praises of his boarding house' (see Kaliprasanna Singha's Hutum Pechar Noksha). After attracting the seamen to the lodging houses these touts left them drugged and plundered. The liquor sold in the grog shops and boarding houses was adulterated for the purpose of robbing the sailors and their captains. The ships were compelled to pay crimpage, otherwise they would be deprived of their seamen and liable to be detained in port for want of them. ​

Although Solvyns' etchings do not represent specifically the 'marginal' Europeans that fraudulent punch house owners or the sailors cheated by them would be categorised as, several objects or locations become entry points into the lives of those who found themselves outside the circle of 'high' Europeans living in Calcutta. Although Solvyns did not entirely have access to the highest echelons of this society, he still fared above many Marginal Europeans that Dr. De writes about. ​

A varied and voluminous set, the series, titled Les Hindous, was published first in Calcutta without much popularity and then reprinted in Paris between 1808 and 1812, containing 288 coloured etchings. Along with the artist’s descriptions in French and English, they present an encyclopaedic vision of the ‘customs, costumes and ceremonies’ of the people of eastern India at the end of eighteenth century. This project was designed in what was described as ‘socially descending sections,’ spanning across caste and community groups and documenting their costumes, rituals, and musical instruments, among other details. ​

Solvyns, along with providing us with visual insights on eighteenth century life in 'black town' Calcutta, also helpfully annotates his etchings and his letterpresses are a wealth of information on his own positionality and opinions. He also gives us a glimpse of the peripheries of European lives in 'white town'. He dedicates multiple plates to the portrayal of servants without the representation of their wealthy European employers. Here we see a glance of a European mansion but the character in focus is the water-carrier or Bhisti, supplying drinking water to the household. ​ For Solvyns, Calcutta was a much more porous city than its urban neighbourhoods' segregation into 'white' and 'black' town would suggest.​

Solvyns here portrays Lal Bazar, looking westward at the crossing of Chitpore Road. Lal Bazar, synonymous with the Calcutta police headquarters, was also famous for its 'punch houses' and places of entertainment, mainly kept by 'Portugese [Eurasians], Italians and other foreigners.' During his years in Calcutta, Solvyns lived in various locations within a short walk of the scene he portrays. The boarding houses were spread across Bowbazar, Lal bazar and Flag street. While writing on these lodging houses or 'punch ghurs', Dr. Sarmistha De in her book Marginal Europeans writes, 'These punch housekeepers virtually controlled the navigation of Calcutta Port using their muscle power.' ​

Also known as touts or crimps, many owners of these lodging houses, were unlicensed British subjects. Even before the ship had docked the punch house owners would gain access to the docks and start 'to sing the praises of his boarding house' (see Kaliprasanna Singha's Hutum Pechar Noksha). After attracting the seamen to the lodging houses these touts left them drugged and plundered. The liquor sold in the grog shops and boarding houses was adulterated for the purpose of robbing the sailors and their captains. The ships were compelled to pay crimpage, otherwise they would be deprived of their seamen and liable to be detained in port for want of them. ​

Although Solvyns' etchings do not represent specifically the 'marginal' Europeans that fraudulent punch house owners or the sailors cheated by them would be categorised as, several objects or locations become entry points into the lives of those who found themselves outside the circle of 'high' Europeans living in Calcutta. Although Solvyns did not entirely have access to the highest echelons of this society, he still fared above many Marginal Europeans that Dr. De writes about. ​

A varied and voluminous set, the series, titled Les Hindous, was published first in Calcutta without much popularity and then reprinted in Paris between 1808 and 1812, containing 288 coloured etchings. Along with the artist’s descriptions in French and English, they present an encyclopaedic vision of the ‘customs, costumes and ceremonies’ of the people of eastern India at the end of eighteenth century. This project was designed in what was described as ‘socially descending sections,’ spanning across caste and community groups and documenting their costumes, rituals, and musical instruments, among other details. ​

Solvyns, along with providing us with visual insights on eighteenth century life in 'black town' Calcutta, also helpfully annotates his etchings and his letterpresses are a wealth of information on his own positionality and opinions. He also gives us a glimpse of the peripheries of European lives in 'white town'. He dedicates multiple plates to the portrayal of servants without the representation of their wealthy European employers. Here we see a glance of a European mansion but the character in focus is the water-carrier or Bhisti, supplying drinking water to the household. ​ For Solvyns, Calcutta was a much more porous city than its urban neighbourhoods' segregation into 'white' and 'black' town would suggest.​

Solvyns here portrays Lal Bazar, looking westward at the crossing of Chitpore Road. Lal Bazar, synonymous with the Calcutta police headquarters, was also famous for its 'punch houses' and places of entertainment, mainly kept by 'Portugese [Eurasians], Italians and other foreigners.' During his years in Calcutta, Solvyns lived in various locations within a short walk of the scene he portrays. The boarding houses were spread across Bowbazar, Lal bazar and Flag street. While writing on these lodging houses or 'punch ghurs', Dr. Sarmistha De in her book Marginal Europeans writes, 'These punch housekeepers virtually controlled the navigation of Calcutta Port using their muscle power.' ​

Also known as touts or crimps, many owners of these lodging houses, were unlicensed British subjects. Even before the ship had docked the punch house owners would gain access to the docks and start 'to sing the praises of his boarding house' (see Kaliprasanna Singha's Hutum Pechar Noksha). After attracting the seamen to the lodging houses these touts left them drugged and plundered. The liquor sold in the grog shops and boarding houses was adulterated for the purpose of robbing the sailors and their captains. The ships were compelled to pay crimpage, otherwise they would be deprived of their seamen and liable to be detained in port for want of them. ​

Although Solvyns' etchings do not represent specifically the 'marginal' Europeans that fraudulent punch house owners or the sailors cheated by them would be categorised as, several objects or locations become entry points into the lives of those who found themselves outside the circle of 'high' Europeans living in Calcutta. Although Solvyns did not entirely have access to the highest echelons of this society, he still fared above many Marginal Europeans that Dr. De writes about. ​

A varied and voluminous set, the series, titled Les Hindous, was published first in Calcutta without much popularity and then reprinted in Paris between 1808 and 1812, containing 288 coloured etchings. Along with the artist’s descriptions in French and English, they present an encyclopaedic vision of the ‘customs, costumes and ceremonies’ of the people of eastern India at the end of eighteenth century. This project was designed in what was described as ‘socially descending sections,’ spanning across caste and community groups and documenting their costumes, rituals, and musical instruments, among other details. ​

Solvyns, along with providing us with visual insights on eighteenth century life in 'black town' Calcutta, also helpfully annotates his etchings and his letterpresses are a wealth of information on his own positionality and opinions. He also gives us a glimpse of the peripheries of European lives in 'white town'. He dedicates multiple plates to the portrayal of servants without the representation of their wealthy European employers. Here we see a glance of a European mansion but the character in focus is the water-carrier or Bhisti, supplying drinking water to the household. ​ For Solvyns, Calcutta was a much more porous city than its urban neighbourhoods' segregation into 'white' and 'black' town would suggest.​

Solvyns here portrays Lal Bazar, looking westward at the crossing of Chitpore Road. Lal Bazar, synonymous with the Calcutta police headquarters, was also famous for its 'punch houses' and places of entertainment, mainly kept by 'Portugese [Eurasians], Italians and other foreigners.' During his years in Calcutta, Solvyns lived in various locations within a short walk of the scene he portrays. The boarding houses were spread across Bowbazar, Lal bazar and Flag street. While writing on these lodging houses or 'punch ghurs', Dr. Sarmistha De in her book Marginal Europeans writes, 'These punch housekeepers virtually controlled the navigation of Calcutta Port using their muscle power.' ​

Also known as touts or crimps, many owners of these lodging houses, were unlicensed British subjects. Even before the ship had docked the punch house owners would gain access to the docks and start 'to sing the praises of his boarding house' (see Kaliprasanna Singha's Hutum Pechar Noksha). After attracting the seamen to the lodging houses these touts left them drugged and plundered. The liquor sold in the grog shops and boarding houses was adulterated for the purpose of robbing the sailors and their captains. The ships were compelled to pay crimpage, otherwise they would be deprived of their seamen and liable to be detained in port for want of them. ​

Although Solvyns' etchings do not represent specifically the 'marginal' Europeans that fraudulent punch house owners or the sailors cheated by them would be categorised as, several objects or locations become entry points into the lives of those who found themselves outside the circle of 'high' Europeans living in Calcutta. Although Solvyns did not entirely have access to the highest echelons of this society, he still fared above many Marginal Europeans that Dr. De writes about. ​

A varied and voluminous set, the series, titled Les Hindous, was published first in Calcutta without much popularity and then reprinted in Paris between 1808 and 1812, containing 288 coloured etchings. Along with the artist’s descriptions in French and English, they present an encyclopaedic vision of the ‘customs, costumes and ceremonies’ of the people of eastern India at the end of eighteenth century. This project was designed in what was described as ‘socially descending sections,’ spanning across caste and community groups and documenting their costumes, rituals, and musical instruments, among other details. ​

Solvyns, along with providing us with visual insights on eighteenth century life in 'black town' Calcutta, also helpfully annotates his etchings and his letterpresses are a wealth of information on his own positionality and opinions. He also gives us a glimpse of the peripheries of European lives in 'white town'. He dedicates multiple plates to the portrayal of servants without the representation of their wealthy European employers. Here we see a glance of a European mansion but the character in focus is the water-carrier or Bhisti, supplying drinking water to the household. ​ For Solvyns, Calcutta was a much more porous city than its urban neighbourhoods' segregation into 'white' and 'black' town would suggest.​

Solvyns here portrays Lal Bazar, looking westward at the crossing of Chitpore Road. Lal Bazar, synonymous with the Calcutta police headquarters, was also famous for its 'punch houses' and places of entertainment, mainly kept by 'Portugese [Eurasians], Italians and other foreigners.' During his years in Calcutta, Solvyns lived in various locations within a short walk of the scene he portrays. The boarding houses were spread across Bowbazar, Lal bazar and Flag street. While writing on these lodging houses or 'punch ghurs', Dr. Sarmistha De in her book Marginal Europeans writes, 'These punch housekeepers virtually controlled the navigation of Calcutta Port using their muscle power.' ​

Also known as touts or crimps, many owners of these lodging houses, were unlicensed British subjects. Even before the ship had docked the punch house owners would gain access to the docks and start 'to sing the praises of his boarding house' (see Kaliprasanna Singha's Hutum Pechar Noksha). After attracting the seamen to the lodging houses these touts left them drugged and plundered. The liquor sold in the grog shops and boarding houses was adulterated for the purpose of robbing the sailors and their captains. The ships were compelled to pay crimpage, otherwise they would be deprived of their seamen and liable to be detained in port for want of them. ​

Although Solvyns' etchings do not represent specifically the 'marginal' Europeans that fraudulent punch house owners or the sailors cheated by them would be categorised as, several objects or locations become entry points into the lives of those who found themselves outside the circle of 'high' Europeans living in Calcutta. Although Solvyns did not entirely have access to the highest echelons of this society, he still fared above many Marginal Europeans that Dr. De writes about. ​

At Steurt and Co. Solvyns decorated two magnificent palanquins commissioned by Lord Cornwallis for the hostage sons of Tipu Sultan. ​

During this period, he shared a room with another artist, John Alefounder. Alefounder had arrived in Calcutta in 1785 with no securities, introductions, contacts and possessed little charm. His prospects were even more limited since he had 'gone melancholy mad.' Soon after, Alefounder tried to hang himself—an apparently common response among Europeans in Calcutta to loneliness and depression. In 1794, while living with Solvyns who had befriended him, he advertised a sale of paintings that could be viewed at their Old Court Lane residence. However, with growing desperation, Alefounder took a penknife to his neck, and committed suicide on December 20, 1794. ​

At Steurt and Co. Solvyns decorated two magnificent palanquins commissioned by Lord Cornwallis for the hostage sons of Tipu Sultan. ​

During this period, he shared a room with another artist, John Alefounder. Alefounder had arrived in Calcutta in 1785 with no securities, introductions, contacts and possessed little charm. His prospects were even more limited since he had 'gone melancholy mad.' Soon after, Alefounder tried to hang himself—an apparently common response among Europeans in Calcutta to loneliness and depression. In 1794, while living with Solvyns who had befriended him, he advertised a sale of paintings that could be viewed at their Old Court Lane residence. However, with growing desperation, Alefounder took a penknife to his neck, and committed suicide on December 20, 1794. ​